Transfection of the BDNF Gene in the Surviving Dopamine Neurons in Conjunction with Continuous Administration of Pramipexole Restores Normal Motor Behavior in a Bilateral Rat Model of Parkinson's Disease.

In Parkinson's disease (PD), progressive degeneration of nigrostriatal innervation leads to atrophy and loss of dendritic spines of striatal medium spiny neurons (MSNs). The loss disrupts corticostriatal transmission, impairs motor behavior, and produces nonmotor symptoms. Nigral neurons express brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF) and dopamine D3 receptors, both protecting the dopamine neurons and the spines of MSNs. To restore motor and nonmotor symptoms to normality, we assessed a combined therapy in a bilateral rat Parkinson's model, with only 30% of surviving neurons. The preferential D3 agonist pramipexole (PPX) was infused for four ½ months via mini-osmotic pumps and one month after PPX initiation; the BDNF-gene was transfected into the surviving nigral cells using the nonviral transfection NTS-polyplex vector. Overexpression of the BDNF-gene associated with continuous PPX infusion restored motor coordination, balance, normal gait, and working memory. Recovery was also related to the restoration of the average number of dendritic spines of the striatal projection neurons and the number of TH-positive neurons of the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area. These positive results could pave the way for further clinical research into this promising therapy.

Endoscopic Stone Composition Identification: Is Accuracy Improved by Stone Appearance During Laser Lithotripsy?

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate if videos during laser lithotripsy increase accuracy and confidence of stone identification by urologists compared to still pictures. METHODS: We obtained representative pictures and videos of 4 major stone types from 8 different patients during ureteroscopy with holmium laser lithotripsy. A REDCap survey was created and emailed to members of the Endourological Society. The survey included a picture followed by the corresponding video of each stone undergoing laser lithotripsy and additional clinical information. Each picture and video included multiple-choice questions about stone composition and response confidence level. Accuracy, confidence levels, and rates of rectification (change from incorrect to correct answer) or confounding (correct to incorrect) after watching videos were analyzed. RESULTS: One hundred eighty-seven urologists responded to the survey. The accuracy rate of stone identification with pictures was 43.8% vs 46.1% with videos (P = .27). Accuracy for individual stones was low and highly variable. Video only improved accuracy for 1 cystine stone. After viewing videos, participants were more likely to rectify vs confound their answers. Urologists were more likely to be confident with videos than pictures alone (65.4% vs 53.7%, respectively; P <.001); however, confident answers were not more likely to yield accurate predictions with videos vs still pictures. CONCLUSION: Stone identification by urologists is marginally improved with videos vs pictures alone. Overall, accuracy in stone identification is low irrespective of confidence level, picture, and lithotripsy video visualization. Urologists should be cautious in using endoscopic stone appearance to direct metabolic management.

Outcomes and Costs Following Mini-percutaneous Nephrolithotomy or Flexible Ureteroscopic Lithotripsy for 1-2-cm Renal Stones: Data From a Prospective, Randomized Clinical Trial.

PURPOSE: We evaluate the outcomes of ureteroscopy vs prone mini-percutaneous nephrolithotomy for 1-2-cm renal stones using a 2-group parallel randomized control trial. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Adult patients presenting with renal stones between 1 and 2 cm were randomized. Exclusion criteria included solitary kidney, multiple stones, and comorbidities precluding prone positioning. Block randomization was performed and was opened to the surgeon the morning of the procedure. Stone-free rate was evaluated by computed tomography 1-30 days postoperatively. Complications, re-treatment rates, and costs were evaluated. RESULTS: A total of 51 mini-percutaneous nephrolithotomy and 50 ureteroscopy patients were included. Baseline demographics were similar. Using a 2-mm cutoff, stone-free rate was higher in the mini-percutaneous nephrolithotomy group (76 vs 46%, P = .0023). The residual stone burden was significantly higher in the ureteroscopy group than the mini-percutaneous nephrolithotomy group (3.6 vs 1.4 mm, P = .0026). Fluoroscopy time was significantly higher in the mini-percutaneous nephrolithotomy group (273 vs 49 seconds, P < .0001). There were no differences in postoperative complications within 30 days, the necessity of a secondary procedure within 30 days, and pre- to postoperative creatinine change (P > .05). Surgical time did not vary significantly (P = .1788). Average length of stay was higher in the mini-percutaneous nephrolithotomy group (P < .0001). Both net revenue and direct costs were higher in mini-percutaneous nephrolithotomy procedures (P < .05), though they offset each other with a nonsignificant operating margin (P = .2541). CONCLUSIONS: In a prospective, randomized, controlled clinical trial using a 2-mm residual stone burden cutoff, mini-percutaneous nephrolithotomy was more likely to render patients stone-free than flexible ureteroscopy. Complications, surgical times, and operating margins did not vary between the approaches.

Comparative outcomes and cost of ambulatory PCNL in select kidney stone patients.

Limited hospital resources and access to care during the COVID-19 pandemic led us to implement a quality-improvement study investigating the feasibility, safety, and costs of same-day discharge after PCNL. The outcomes of 53 consecutive first-look PCNL patients included in a same-day discharge protocol during COVID-19 were compared to 54 first-look PCNL patients admitted for overnight observation. Control group had a similar comorbidity profile. Demographics, operative details, 30 day outcomes and readmissions, complications, and cost were compared between the two groups. Same-day discharge and one-day admission post-PCNL patients did not have significantly different baseline characteristics. The study group were more likely to have mini-PCNL (81% vs 50%, p < 0.01). Operative characteristics including median pre-operative stone burden (1.4 vs 1.7 cm3, p = 0.47) and post-operative stone burden (0.14 vs 0.18 cm3, p = 0.061) were similar between the two groups. Clavien-Dindo complication rates were lower in the study group compared to controls (0 vs 7%, p = 0.045). Readmission rates (2 vs 4%, p = 0.569) and ED visits (4 vs 6%, p = 0.662) were similar between the two groups. Total cost ($6,648.92 vs $9,466.07, p < 0.01) was significantly lower and operating margin ($4,475.96 vs $1,742.16, p < 0.01) was significantly higher for the same-day discharge group. Percutaneous nephrolithotomy may be performed in select patients without an increase in short-term complications, ED visits, or readmissions. Patients undergoing mini-PCNL are particularly amenable to same-day discharge, however, standard PCNL patients should not be excluded from consideration. Avoiding overnight admission decreases total cost and increased hospital operating margin.

A PEDOT nano-composite for hyperthermia and elimination of urological bacteria.

Novel modalities for overcoming recurrent urinary tract infections associated with indwelling urinary catheters are needed, and rapidly induced hyperthermia is one potential solution. PEDOT nanotubes are a class of photothermal particles that can easily be incorporated into silicone to produce thin, uniform coating on medical grade silicone catheters; subsequent laser stimulation therein imparts temperature elevations that can eliminate bacteria and biofilms. PEDOT silicone coatings are stable following thermal sterilization and repeated heating and cooling cycles. Laser stimulation can induce temperature increases of up to 55 °C in 300 s, but only 45 s was needed for ablation of UTI inducing E. coli biofilms in vitro. This work also demonstrates that mild hyperthermia of 50 °C, applied for only 31 s in the presence of antibiotics could eliminate E. coli biofilm as effectively as high temperatures. This work culminates in the evaluation of the PEDOT NTs for photothermal elimination of E. coli in an in vivo model to demonstrate the safety and effectiveness of a photothermal nanocomposite (16 s treatment time) for rapid clearance of E. coli.

Photothermal nanoparticles for ablation of bacteria associated with kidney stones.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether photothermal polymer nanoparticles (NPs) can interface with bacteria associated with kidney stones, generate heat when stimulated with near infrared (NIR) light, and aid in reducing bacterial burden. METHODS: Two types of kidney stones, artificial, and those removed during percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL), were inoculated with Escherichia coli (E. coli) and then incubated with NPs composed of FITC-labeled Poly[4,4-bis(2-ethylhexyl)-cyclopenta[2,1-b;3,4-b']-dithiophene-2,6-diyl-alt-2,1,3-benzoselenadiazole-4,7-diyl] (PCPDTBSe). Association of the PCPDTBSe NPs was evaluated using fluorescence microscopy. Infected stones were incubated with NPs and exposed to 800 nm light to generate temperature increases from 25.4 to 68.6 °C on the stones. Following photothermal treatment, the stones were homogenized and the bacteria was enumerated via colony counting assays to evaluate the bactericidal effect. The photothermal effect was also evaluated using scanning electron microscopy of the treated biofilms. RESULTS: Both kidney stone types sequestered E. coli. Control stones and stones treated with laser only had growth of numerous bacterial colonies, while stones exposed to NPs and laser grew significantly less, or none (p = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: The polymer NPs interface with E. coli on artificial and patient-derived kidney stones, and they can impart a bactericidal effect, when stimulated with NIR to generate heat. This technique may possibly be extended to treating infected kidney stones in patients.

Preoperative imaging in staghorn calculi, planning and decision making in management of staghorn calculi.

OBJECTIVE: Staghorn calculi present a particular and challenging entity of stone morphology. Treatment is associated with lower stone-free rates and higher complication rates compared to non-staghorn stones. In this review we looked for the most relevant data on preoperative imaging and access planning to help decision making for percutaneous surgery with this complex condition. METHODS: We conducted a PubMed search of publications in the past 2 decades that include relevant information on the planning for management of staghorn stones. Non-contrast computerized tomography (NCCT) is indeed the standard imaging tool for percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL); additional tools such as three-dimensional computed tomography (CT) reconstruction of the staghorn calculus may help plan access in complex cases. Ultrasound guided percutaneous access may be considered for staghorn stones when planning upper pole access in kidney malposition or complex intrarenal anatomy or with complex body habitus. Wideband doppler ultrasound and real-time virtual sonography can assist. New technologies to improve kidney access such as Uro Dyna-CT or electromagnetic sensor have been reported, but have not shown utilization in staghorn cases. Staghorn morphometry-based prediction algorithms may predict the number of tract(s) and stage(s) for PCNL monotherapy. Lower pole access can be equally effective as upper pole when planning for staghorn and complex stones, with significantly less complications rate; Stone-Tract length-Obstruction-Number of involved calyces-Essence of stone density (STONE) nephrolithometry seems to be the best system to predict outcomes of PCNL in staghorn cases. There is a growing trend of endoscopic combined intrarenal surgery (ECIRS) in concordance with PCNL to treat larger stones. Conservative management of staghorn calculi is an undesired option, but can be an alternative for a carefully selected group of high-risk patients. CONCLUSION: Staghorn stones may lead to deterioration of renal function and life-threatening urosepsis. This entity should be managed aggressively with planning ahead for surgery using the different tools available as the cornerstone for a successful outcome.

Can physicians detect hyperkalemia based on the electrocardiogram?

OBJECTIVE: Although there is no consensus on how to use an electrocardiogram (ECG) in patients with hyperkalemia, physicians often obtain it in the acute setting when diagnosing and treating hyperkalemia. The objective of this study is to evaluate if physicians are able to detect hyperkalemia based on the ECG. METHODS: The study was conducted at a large county hospital with a population of end stage renal disease (ESRD) patients who received hemodialysis (HD) solely on an emergent basis. Five hundred twenty eight ECGs from ESRD patients were evaluated. The prevalence of hyperkalemia was approximately 60% in this cohort, with at least half of them in the severe hyperkalemia range (K ≥ 6.5 mEq/L). RESULTS: The mean sensitivity and specificity of the emergency physicians detecting hyperkalemia were 0.19 (± 0.16) and 0.97(± 0.04) respectively. The mean positive predictive value of evaluators for detecting hyperkalemia was 0.92 (±0.13) and the mean negative predictive value was 0.46 (± 0.05). In severe hyperkalemia (K ≥ 6.5 mEq/L), the mean sensitivity improved to 0.29 (± 0.20), while specificity decreased to 0.95 (±0.07). CONCLUSION: An ECG is not a sensitive method of detecting hyperkalemia and should not be relied upon to rule it out. However, the ECG has a high specificity for detecting hyperkalemia and could be used as a rule in test.

Blockade of Intranigral and Systemic D3 Receptors Stimulates Motor Activity in the Rat Promoting a Reciprocal Interaction among Glutamate, Dopamine, and GABA.

In vivo activation of dopamine D3 receptors (D3Rs) depresses motor activity. D3Rs are widely expressed in subthalamic, striatal, and dendritic dopaminergic inputs into the substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr). In vitro studies showed that nigral D3Rs modulate their neurotransmitter release; thus, it could be that these changes in neurotransmitter levels modify the discharge of nigro-thalamic neurons and, therefore, motor behavior. To determine how the in vitro responses correspond to the in vivo responses, we examined the effect of intra-nigral and systemic blockade of D3Rs in the interstitial content of glutamate, dopamine, and GABA within the SNr using microdialysis coupled to motor activity determinations in freely moving rats. Intranigral unilateral blockade of D3R with GR 103,691 increased glutamate, dopamine, and GABA. Increments correlated with increased ambulatory distance, non-ambulatory activity, and induced contralateral turning. Concomitant blockade of D3R with D1R by perfusion of SCH 23390 reduced the increase of glutamate; prevented the increment of GABA, but not of dopamine; and abolished behavioral effects. Glutamate stimulates dopamine release by NMDA receptors, while blockade with kynurenic acid prevented the increase in dopamine and, in turn, of GABA and glutamate. Finally, systemic administration of D3R selective antagonist U 99194A increased glutamate, dopamine, and GABA in SNr and stimulated motor activity. Blockade of intra-nigral D1R with SCH 23390 prior to systemic U 99194A diminished increases in neurotransmitter levels and locomotor activity. These data highlight the pivotal role of presynaptic nigral D3 and D1R in the control of motor activity and help to explain part of the effects of the in vivo administration of D3R agents.

Robotic-assisted radical prostatectomy: The teaching. / Formación del personal en la prostatectomía radical laparoscópica asistida por robot.

OBJECTIVE OF THE REVIEW: Robot assisted Radical prostatectomy (RARP) has generated a new trend in the binomial teaching/learning, grouping these techniques in training modules such as theoretical learning, practice, personalized counseling, and modern tools like simulation and practice in virtual models. This review summarizes the current trend in the teaching process of RARP. RECENT FINDINGS: Current trends in the acquisition of the RARP learning curve is to provide the Urologist with a well-structured teaching process, implementing gradual training modules, which make possible to understand all aspects of the development of prostate surgery with a robotic system. This process consists in analyzing the theoretical aspects, perform training with high quality simulators and proctorization, in both cases in vivo and as assistant, until completion of the advanced phase in console with haptic training and proctor's direct advice, while the learning curve is being completed. The evidence shows that student and proctor feedback with the use of virtual models, immediately post-procedure video analysis, and a high-volume center are able to shorten the teaching process. The learning process never culminates, in other words, the final phase of the student, is when he is prepared to teaching the multiplier effect of his learning curve. CONCLUSIONS: Virtual models in Robotic surgery has changed the perspective teaching process of medicine. Theoretical knowledge, virtual training and Proctor's advice are essential steps in the learning curve. Future directions,evolution of virtual models in a similar fashion to the real scenario.

OBJETIVO: La Prostatectomía Radical asistida por Robot (PRAR) ha generado una nueva tendencia en el binomio enseñanza/aprendizaje agrupando estastécnicas en módulos de entrenamiento como aprendizaje teórico, practico, asesoramiento personalizado y herramientas modernas como simulación y práctica en modelos virtuales. Esta revisión resume la tendencia actual en el proceso de enseñanza de la PRAR. HALLAZGOS RECIENTES: La tendencia actual en la adquisición de la curva de la PRAR es proporcionar al urólogo un proceso de enseñanza bien estructurado,implementando módulos de entrenamiento graduales, que le permitan comprender en todos los aspectos el desenvolvimiento de la cirugía radical de próstata con un sistema robótico. Dicho proceso consiste en analizarlas bases teóricas, realizar entrenamiento con simulado res de alta calidad, interactuar con él supervisor tanto en casos in vivo como en ayudantía de cirugías, hasta completar la fase avanzada en consola con entrenamientoháptico y asesoramiento directo del supervisor, mientras se adquiere la curva de aprendizaje. La evidencia demuestra que la retroalimentación del alumno yproctor supervisor con el uso de modelos virtuales, análisis de videos inmediatamente posterior al procedimiento y un centro de alto volumen logran acortar el proceso de enseñanza. La formación en cirugía robótica nunca culmina, por el contrario, la fase final del alumno, es cuando se encuentra preparado para realizar el efecto multiplicador de su curva de aprendizaje.CONCLUSIÓN: La Cirugía Robótica ha cambiado la perspectiva de la  enseñanza de la Medicina, mediante el uso de modelos virtuales. Conocimientos teóricos, entrenamiento virtual y el asesoramiento del supervisor son pasos necesarios en la curva de aprendizaje. Direccionesfuturas esperadas son la evolución de los modelos virtuales similares al escenario real.

Presynaptic control of [3H]-glutamate release by dopamine receptor subtypes in the rat substantia nigra. Central role of D1 and D3 receptors.

Substantia nigra pars reticulata is the output station in basal ganglia; its GABAergic neurons control the activity of thalamo-cortical premotor nuclei, thus controlling motor behavior. D1-like and D2-like presynaptic dopamine receptors on subthalamo-nigral afferents by modulation of glutamate release change the firing rate of nigral neurons; however, their relative contribution to the control of glutamate release and their pharmacological properties have not been studied. This is important since the prevalence of the inhibition or stimulation of release determines the firing rate of nigral neurons, therefore motor activity. Here we used depolarization induced [3H]-glutamate release in slices of rat substantia nigra from reserpinized and non-reserpinized rats to explore the relative contribution of the D1-like and D2-like receptor subtypes to the control of glutamate release. We found a significant control of release by D1-like and D3R, and a modest effect of D2R. D4R exerted no effect. Dopamine showed more potency for D3R than for D1-like receptors; however, these latter enhanced release to a greater degree, as shown by the Emax. We also co-activated these to test their interaction; an antagonist interaction of D1-like with D2 and D3R, and an additive between D2 and D3R were found. Pharmacological receptor antagonist effects in release from reserpinized vs. non-reserpinized slices were similar, suggesting that endogenous dopamine stimulates receptors in the same way. These findings suggest differences in the control of glutamate release by different dopamine receptors in the substantia nigra, which could contribute to explaining the effect of dopamine and its agonists on motor behavior.

Formación del personal en la prostatectomía radical laparoscópica asistida por robot / Staff training in robotic-assisted laparoscopic radical prostatectomy

Objetivo: La Prostatectomía Radical asistida por Robot (PRAR) ha generado una nueva tendencia en el binomio enseñanza/aprendizaje agrupando estas técnicas en módulos de entrenamiento como aprendizaje teórico, practico, asesoramiento personalizado y herramientas modernas como simulación y práctica en modelos virtuales. Esta revisión resume la tendencia actual en el proceso de enseñanza de la PRAR. Hallazgos recientes: La tendencia actual en la adquisición de la curva de la PRAR es proporcionar al urólogo un proceso de enseñanza bien estructurado, implementando módulos de entrenamiento graduales, que le permitan comprender en todos los aspectos el desenvolvimiento de la cirugía radical de próstata con un sistema robótico. Dicho proceso consiste en analizar las bases teóricas, realizar entrenamiento con simulado res de alta calidad, interactuar con él supervisor tanto en casos in vivo como en ayudantía de cirugías, hasta completar la fase avanzada en consola con entrenamiento háptico y asesoramiento directo del supervisor, mientras se adquiere la curva de aprendizaje. La evidencia demuestra que la retroalimentación del alumno y proctor supervisor con el uso de modelos virtuales, análisis de videos inmediatamente posterior al procedimiento y un centro de alto volumen logran acortar el proceso de enseñanza. La formación en cirugía robótica nunca culmina, por el contrario, la fase final del alumno, es cuando se encuentra preparado para realizar el efecto multiplicador de su curva de aprendizaje. Conclusión: La Cirugía Robótica ha cambiado la perspectiva de la enseñanza de la Medicina, mediante el uso de modelos virtuales. Conocimientos teóricos, entrenamiento virtual y el asesoramiento del supervisor son pasos necesarios en la curva de aprendizaje. Direcciones futuras esperadas son la evolución de los modelos virtuales similares al escenario real

Objective of the review: Robot assisted Radical prostatectomy (RARP) has generated a new trend in the binomial teaching/learning, grouping these techniques in training modules such as theoretical learning, practice, personalized counseling, and modern tools like simulation and practice in virtual models. This review summarizes the current trend in the teaching process of RARP. Recent findings: Current trends in the acquisition of the RARP learning curve is to provide the Urologist with a well-structured teaching process, implementing gradual training modules, which make possible to understand all aspects of the development of prostate surgery with a robotic system. This process consists in analyzing the theoretical aspects, perform training with high quality simulators and proctorization, in both cases in vivo and as assistant, until completion of the advanced phase in console with haptic training and proctor’s direct advice, while the learning curve is being completed. The evidence shows that student and proctor feedback with the use of virtual models, immediately post-procedure video analysis, and a high-volume center are able to shorten the teaching process. The learning process never culminates, in other words, the final phase of the student, is when he is prepared to teaching the multiplier effect of his learning curve. Conclusions: Virtual models in Robotic surgery has changed the perspective teaching process of medicine. Theoretical knowledge, virtual training and Proctor’s advice are essential steps in the learning curve. Future directions, evolution of virtual models in a similar fashion to the real scenario

The role of extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy in the future of stone management.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The most relevant recent findings on the use of extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL) in adult population to provide an insight of its role in the current and future of stone treatment. Comparing ESWL with other modalities is not in the scope of this review. RECENT FINDINGS: We conducted a PubMed/Embase search and reviewed recent publications that include relevant information on the development of ESWL. Low-rate shock waves improve stone breakage, ramping energy modalities improve stone fragmentation and have lower incidence of hematoma and kidney injury. Transgluteal approach is suggested to improve stone-free rates for distal ureteral stones in a single session. Proper coupling is the most important technical aspect of the treatment and coupling improvement can be achieved by optical monitorization. Triple D score is a promising tool in proper patient selection, but external validation is needed. Predictive information arising from computed tomography scans has been refined by the variant coefficient of stone density and 3D texture analysis that might improve outcomes in the future. SUMMARY: Recent evidence suggests that modifying techniques and protocols, and better patient selection are the current trends for improving ESWL outcomes. EWSL will keep its role as the single noninvasive treatment in stone management with room for outcome improvement in the future.

Evaluation of Clinical Use and Cost-Effectiveness of a Flexible Cystoscope System with a Disposable Sheath: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

INTRODUCTION: Flexible cystoscopy is routinely performed as an outpatient procedure. The use of disposable sheaths can increase cystoscope life span and reduce staff costs. The primary end point of this study was to evaluate procedure related discomfort and pain, physician maneuverability, residual bioburden and reprocessing time. The secondary end point was to analyze the cost-effectiveness of a flexible cystoscope with a disposable sheath compared to a standard flexible cystoscope. METHODS: This randomized clinical trial was performed with women older than 18 years, with intact cognition and 7 days antibiotic-free who were referred to outpatient clinic for cystoscopy. Patients underwent cystoscopy with a standard flexible cystoscope or flexible cystoscope with disposable sheath. Urinalysis and culture were performed before and 14 days after cystoscopy. Patients filled out a pain/discomfort visual analog scale. Physicians filled out a 5-point Likert scale for the elements of ease of insertion, manipulation, optical quality and overall use. Reprocessing time and costs were compared between both cystoscopes. RESULTS: A total of 60 patients were included in the study, comprised of 30 who underwent standard flexible cystoscopy and 30 who underwent flexible cystoscopy with a protective sheath. Patient discomfort/pain was equivalent in both groups. The Likert scores were similar except for ease of insertion, which was higher with protective sheaths (p <0.02). Protective sheaths were associated with lower reprocessing time and costs (p <0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The use of protective sheaths effectively reduced procedure and staff related costs without causing any additional patient discomfort or pain. The learning curve of the sheathed scope may explain the difference reported by physicians regarding the ease of insertion.

[Current status of urological training in Latin America.] / Estado actual de la formación urológica en América Latina.

OBJECTIVE: Achieving residents' medical training of quality is a constant concern in the Confederación Americana de Urología (CAU), the third Urological Society worldwide. We aim to analyze the diversity of state training programs, with the intention to identify opportunities for global improvement within them and also to analyse the professional reality in different countries. METHODS: Data from 2nd and 3rd Foro Educativo CAU regarding postgraduate training and labour implications are reviewed. This information is complemented by the opinion of representatives involved with the academic training in Confederación Americana de Urología, who have analyzed the reality and current status of the urological training through a 10-question survey that describes different aspects of residency program in the countries confederated in CAU. RESULTS: A total of 3,000 graduate doctors train as residents in Urology at the CAU environment. Each year 670 residents begin their training program in Latin America, Spain and Portugal, a territory that serves nearly 650 million people, with an active professional force of around 16.800 professionals. Detailed data on training, employment and supporting reality in the countries that comprise the CAU are presented. We also discuss the proportion of residents who carry out research and doctorate during the residency program. Finally, we examine the proportion of professionals who receive specific training at the end of their residence, the relative importance of this training and what are the most popular environments to carry it out. CONCLUSIONS: Current postgraduate training in CAU environment is heterogeneous in their programs, as well as in the modes of accreditation and recertification. Academic activities do not seem to be properly valued. However, specific training offers better expectations of professional development.

Comparative Outcomes of Conventional and Miniaturized Percutaneous Nephrostolithotomy for the Treatment of Kidney Stones-Does a Miniaturized Tract Improve Quality of Care?

INTRODUCTION: Percutaneous nephrostolithotomy is the method of choice to treat renal stones larger than 2 cm due to its high stone-free rates but it has potentially increased blood loss, postoperative pain and hospital stay compared to other treatments. Miniaturizing the percutaneous tract has recently gained interest. We performed a quality improvement study to investigate whether mini percutaneous nephrostolithotomy would reduce postoperative analgesic use, blood loss, operative time and/or hospital stay relative to the conventional approach while maintaining stone-free rates in our patient population. METHODS: The outcomes of 29 consecutive mini percutaneous nephrostolithotomies were compared to 27 conventional procedures performed by a single surgeon at our institution. Inclusion criteria were age 18 years or older, body mass index 18 to 40 kg/m2 and first look percutaneous nephrostolithotomy for stones 1 to 3.5 cm. Conventional percutaneous nephrostolithotomy was performed through a 30Fr tract, whereas the mini approach was done through a 16.5Fr tract. All percutaneous access was performed by the surgeon. RESULTS: A total of 17 patients in the conventional percutaneous nephrostolithotomy group and 19 in the mini approach group were stone-free after 1 procedure. There was no significant difference in residual stone burden, operative time or postoperative analgesic use between groups. There was significantly less blood loss (p = 0.02) in the mini percutaneous nephrostolithotomy group. CONCLUSIONS: Conventional and mini percutaneous nephrostolithotomies are effective methods of removing renal stones 1 to 3.5 cm in greatest dimension. There is no difference in residual stone volume, postoperative analgesic use or operative time between the 2 modalities, but blood loss is less in the mini percutaneous nephrostolithotomy group.